All phonemic transcriptions will be directly followed by forms with standardised spelling and grammar. Forms in brackets are offered dialectal alternatives.

Vowels

Short Unstressed Monophthongs

The following monophthongs occur in unstressed environments, though a number of exceptions are noted.

/ə/ unstressed central vowel

[ə] mid central vowel

(Breatnach 1947, ə¹)

Between two consonants of velar quality:

/kuːntəs/ cuntas (cúntas < cunntas) an account
/kuːrəm/ cúram care
/dorəxə/ dorcha (doracha) dark
/foləṽ/ folamh empty
/ɡarəv/ garbh (garabh) rough
/məˈkaːntə/ macánta honest, good-natured

Absolute final position following a consonant of velar quality:

/dorəxə/ dorcha (doracha) dark
/murkə/ iomarca (murca) too much
/məˈkaːntə/ macánta honest, good-natured
/molə/ moladh (mola) verbal noun of mol praise
/rəurtə/ rabharta a spring tide

[ɘ̟] advanced high-mid central unrounded vowel

(Breatnach 1947, ə²)

Between two consonants of palatal quality:

/-/ cleith (cileach) a fishing rod

Absolute final position following a consonant of palatal quality:

[ɘ̠] retracted high-mid central unrounded vowel

(Breatnach 1947, ə³)

Short Stressed Monophthongs

The following monophthongs occur in stressed environments, though a number of exceptions are noted.

In particular, when /a/ is a non-absolute initial low vowel, it does not reduce to /ə/ in the unstressed initial syllable where the stressed second syllable contains a high long vowel /iː/, /uː/, /iə/ or /uə/:

/bʲaˈnuː/ beannú (beanú) verbal noun of beannaigh bless
/baˈlʲuː/ bailiú verbal noun of bailigh gather
/kaˈlʲiːnʲ/ cailín a young woman
/kaˈhiːrʲ/ cathaoir a chair
/lʲaˈnuːnʲtʲ/ leanúint verbal noun of lean follow

In exception to the above, the low vowel /a/ does not reduce to /ə/ in the unstressed initial syllable where the stressed second syllable contains the mid long vowel /eː/ in at least one instance:

/kapˈteːnʲ/ captaen (captaein) a captain

In another exception to vowel reduction, when /a/ is a non-absolute initial low vowel, it does not reduce to /ə/ in the unstressed initial syllable of a verb where the stressed second syllable consists of a verbal ending with the long vowel /oː/:

/ṽaˈroːx ʃeː/ mharódh sé (mharóch sé) conditional masculine singular of maraigh kill
/maˈroː ʃeː/ maróidh sé (maró sé) future masculine singular of maraigh kill
/hʲaˈsoːx ʃeː/ sheasfadh sé (sheasóch sé) conditional masculine singular of seas (seasaigh) stand
/ʃaˈsoː ʃeː/ seasfaidh sé (seasó sé) future masculine singular of seas (seasaigh) stand

Where the stress is contained in the third syllable, the vowel in the first syllable does not reduce to /ə/:

/baləˈvaːn/ balbhán (balabhán) a dumb person, a silent person
/koləˈmuːrʲ/ colmóir (colamúir) a hake
/spʲaləˈdoːrʲ/ spealadóir a reaper, a scytheman
/anʲəˈṽʲiː/ ainmhí (ainimhí) an animal

In exception to the above, the low vowel /a/ does reduce to /ə/ (and is usually deleted in absolute initial position unless immediately preceded by a word ending in a consonant) in the unstressed initial syllable where the third syllable contains the stress in at least one instance:

/(ə)məˈdaːn/ amadán, (‘madán) a fool

/a/ low front vowel

[a] low front unrounded vowel

(Breatnach 1947, a¹)

Absolute initial position preceding /s/:

/asəl/ asal donkey
/aspəɡ/ easpog bishop

Absolute initial position preceding a consonant of velar quality other than /s/ or /n/, in free variation with [ɑ̈]:

/axər(ə)n/ achrann (acharn, acharan) strife
/akərə/ acra (acara) acre
/aˈruːr/ arbhar (arúr) corn
/aɡələ/ eagla (eagala) fear

Absolute initial position preceding a consonant of palatal quality:

/abʲəɡʲ/ aibigh (aibig) ripen, mature
/aɡʲənʲə/ aigne (aigine) mind
/anʲəmʲ/ ainm (ainim) name

Following a consonant of velar quality other than those of labial quality and preceding a consonant of palatal quality, in free variation with [ɑ̈]:

/kahʲə ʃeː/ caithfidh sé (caithi’ sé) he will throw, cast; he will spend, wear; he will have to, be obliged to
/ɡarʲədʲ/ gairid short

Following a consonant of palatal quality:

/bʲan/ bean woman, wife
/kʲart/ ceart right
/fʲar/ fear man
/(ə)ˈmʲaxt/ imeacht, (‘meacht) going, departure
/lʲax/ leath (leach) half
/pʲakə/ peaca sin
/ʃa/ sea it is (it)

[ɑ̈] low central unrounded vowel

(Breatnach 1947, a²)

Absolute initial position preceding /n/:

/anəm/ anam soul

Absolute initial position preceding a consonant of velar quality other than /s/ or /n/, in free variation with [a]:

/axər(ə)n/ achrann (acharn, acharan) strife
/akərə/ acra (acara) acre
/aˈruːr/ arbhar (arúr) corn
/aɡələ/ eagla (eagala) fear

Between two consonants of velar quality other than those with labial quality, in occasional free variation with [a]:

/kasə/ casadh (casa) twist(ing), turn(ing), winding; returning
/kat/ cat cat
/dax/ dath (dach) colour
/ɡarəv/ garbh (garabh) rough
/ɡaˈdiː/ gadaí robber
/tart/ tart thirst

Following a consonant of velar quality other than those of labial quality and preceding a consonant of palatal quality, in free variation with [a]:

/kahʲə ʃeː/ caithfidh sé (caithe sé) he will throw, cast; he will spend, wear; he will have to, be obliged to
/ɡarʲədʲ/ gairid short

[ɑ] low back unrounded vowel

(Breatnach 1947, a³)

/e/ mid front unrounded vowel

[e̞] mid front unrounded vowel

(Breatnach 1947, e¹)

[ɜ] low-mid central unrounded vowel

(Breatnach 1947, e²)

/o/ mid back rounded vowel

[o̞] mid back rounded vowel

(Breatnach 1947, o)

/i/ high front unrounded vowel

[ɪ] near-high near-front unrounded vowel

(Breatnach 1947, i¹)

Absolute word-initial position preceding a consonant of palatal quality:

/iʃkʲə/ uisce
/ihʲəmʲ/ ithim

Between two consonants of palatal quality:

/mʲinʲəkʲ/ minic
/mʲiʃə/ mise
/mʲiʃtʲə/ miste
/eː ʃinʲ/ é sin
/ʃiŋʲə/ sinne (singe)
/tʲinʲə/ tine

[ɪ̈] near-high central unrounded vowel

(Breatnach 1947, i²)

/u/ high back rounded vowel

[ʊ] near-high near-back rounded vowel

(Breatnach 1947, u¹)

[ʊ̈] near-high central rounded vowel

(Breatnach 1947, u²)

Long Monophthongs

/aː/ long low back unrounded vowel

[ɑː] long low back unrounded vowel

(Breatnach 1947, a:)

/eː/ long mid front unrounded vowel

[eː] long high-mid front unrounded vowel

(Breatnach 1947, e:¹)

[ɘː] long high-mid central unrounded vowel

(Breatnach 1947, e:²)

[ɜː] long low-mid central unrounded vowel

(Breatnach 1947, e:³)

/oː/ long mid back rounded vowel

[oː] long high-mid back rounded vowel

(Breatnach 1947, o:¹)

[o̞ː] long mid back rounded vowel

(Breatnach 1947, o:²)

[ɵː] long high-mid central rounded vowel

(Breatnach 1947, o:³)

/iː/ long high front unrounded vowel

[iː] long high front unrounded vowel

(Breatnach 1947, i:¹)

[i̠ː] long high near-front unrounded vowel

(Breatnach 1947, i:²)

/uː/ long high front unrounded vowel

[uː] long high back rounded vowel

(Breatnach 1947, u:¹)

[u̟ː] long high near-back rounded vowel

(Breatnach 1947, u:²)

Diphthongs

/ai/

/au/

/əi/

/əu/

/iə/

[iˑə]

(Breatnach 1947, iə¹)

[i̠ˑə]

(Breatnach 1947, iə²)

[iˑɘ]

(Breatnach 1947, iə³)

/ia/

[i̞ˑæ̈]

(Breatnach 1947, ia)

/uə/

[uˑɘ]

(Breatnach 1947, uə¹)

[uˑə]

(Breatnach 1947, uə²)

/ua/

[u̞ˑɑ̈]

(O'Rahilly 1942, uà)

Nasalisation

All vowels undergo varying degrees of allophonic nasalisation when neighbouring a consonant of nasal quality.

Where a historical consonant of nasal quality has since become lost in a word while the vowel has retained its nasalisation, that vowel has since phonemicised as a nasal vowel and should be marked as such in phonemic transcription.

Epenthesis

Between a coronal sonorant and dorsals /ɡ/, /ɡʲ/, /x/, /xʲ/ or labials /b/, /bʲ/, /v/, /vʲ/, /ṽ/, /ṽʲ/, if the preceding syllable contains a short monophthong, an epenthetic vowel develops:

/arəˈɡuːnʲtʲ/ argóint (aragúint) argument
/baləv/ balbh (balabh) defective in speech, stammering, speaking indistinctly, dumb
/boləɡ/ bolg (bolag) belly
/dʲarəɡ/ dearg (dearag) red
/dorəxə/ dorcha (doracha) dark
/fʲarəɡ/ fearg (fearag) anger
/ɡarəv/ garbh (garabh) rough
/lorəɡ/ lorg (lorag) act of searching, seeking
/marəv/ marbh (marabh) dead, ruined
/mʲerʲəɡʲ/ meirg (meirig) rust
/scoləb/ scolb (scolab) ‘scollop’, pointed wattle used in thatching
/ʃanəxəs/ seanchas (seanachas) conversation
/ʃarəv/ searbh (searabh) bitter
/ʃerʲəˈvʲiːʃ/ seirbhís (seiribhís) service

Where an epenthetic vowel developed before a historical medial /ɣ/, /j/, /v/, /vʲ/, /ṽ/ or /ṽʲ/ that has since vocalised, a long monophthong or diphthong has developed:

/ɡaˈruː/ garbha (garú) nominative plural of garbh
/ɡʲaˈluːn/ gealbhan (gealún) sparrow
/ɡʲrʲaˈnuːr/ greannmhar (greanúr) humorous
/maˈruː/ marbha (marú) nominative plural of marbh
/ʃeˈrʲiː/ seirbhe (seirí) feminine genitive singular of searbh

Elision

In pretonic environments, /ə/ usually undergoes apheresis, reducing the number of syllables in a word, including in sentence-initial position; though, when immediately preceded by a word ending in a consonant, the vowel remains:

/(ə)ˈmʲiːn/ imíonn (imíon, 'míon) present analytic of imigh depart
/(ə)ˈnʲiːn/ iníon, ('níon) daughter
/(ə)ˈnʲuːlʲ/ inniúil (iniúil, 'niúil) capable

In prepositional forms where the stress has shifted to the second syllable, absolute-initial vowels are prone to apheresis as described above:

/(ə)ˈɡum/ agam (agum, 'gum)
/(ə)ˈɡut/ agat (agut, 'gut)
/(ə)ˈɡʲe/ aige, ('ge)
/(ə)ˈkʲi/ aici, ('ci)
/(ə)ˈɡiŋʲ/ againn (aguing, 'guing)
/(ə)ˈɡivʲ/ agaibh (aguibh, 'guibh)
/(ə)ˈku/ acu, ('cu)
/(ə)ˈdʲirʲ/ idir, ('dir)

Some of the pronominal conjugations of the preposition ar can shift stress from the first syllable to the second and undergo apheresis accordingly if the preceding word ends in a consonant:

/orəm/ > /rom/ orm (oram, 'rom)
/erʲəŋʲ/ > /riŋʲ/ orainn (oiring, 'ruing)
/erʲəvʲ/ > /rivʲ/ oraibh (oiribh, 'ruibh)

The monosyllabic pronominal forms of ar may undergo apheresis if the preceding word ends in a consonant:

/(o)rt/ ort, ('rt)
/(e)rʲ/ air (oir, 'r)

The remaining pronominal forms of ar retain their disyllabic structure with stress on the first syllable and avoid apheresis:

/erʲhʲə/ uirthi (oirthe)
/orhə/ orthu (ortha)

Like some of the pronominal conjugations of ar, those of the preposition i can also shift stress accordingly:

/unəm/ > /num/ ionam (iunam, 'num)
/unət/ > /nut/ ionat (iunat, 'nut)
/unəŋʲ/ > /niŋʲ/ ionainn (iunaing, 'nuing)
/unəvʲ/ > /nivʲ/ ionaibh (iunaibh, 'nuibh)

Other pronominal forms of the preposition i may undergo apheresis accordingly without shifting stress:

/(au)n/ ann, ('n)
/(au)ntə/ ionta (eannta, 'nta)

Some emphatic forms of the pronominal forms of the preposition i force the shift onto the second syllable and can undergo apheresis accordingly:

/(ə)ˈnumsə/ ionamsa (eanumsa, 'numsa)
/(ə)ˈnutsə/ ionatsa (eanutsa, 'nutsa)

There is at least one case of permanent apheresis where the vowel has been lost entirely:

/rʲaːn/ arán (reán) bread

In an initial closed pretonic syllable preceding a coronal sonorant, /ə/ usually undergoes syncope, reducing the number of syllables in a word:

Glides

Consonants

Labials

/p/

/pʲ/

/b/

/bʲ/

/m/

/mʲ/

/f/

/fʲ/

/v/

/vʲ/

/ṽ/

/ṽʲ/

Coronal Obstruents

/t/

/tʲ/

/d/

/dʲ/

/s/

/ʃ/

Coronal Sonorants

/l/

/lʲ/

/r/

/rʲ/

There is at least one a case of permanent palatalisation in absolute initial position being pronounced in all environments:

/rʲaːn/ arán (reán) bread

/n/

/nʲ/

Dorsals

/k/

/kʲ/

/ɡ/

/ɡʲ/

/ŋ/

/ŋʲ/

/x/

/xʲ/

/ɣ/

/j/

Laryngeals

/h/

/hʲ/

Stress

Stress in Simple Words

Stress generally occurs on the first syllable.
Where -ach /ax/ or -each /ax/ occurs in the second syllable and no other syllable contains a long monophthong or diphthong, the second syllable takes the stress.
- Examples:
  - /ɡʲulˈkax/ giolcach
  - /bʲ(ə)ˈnʲax/ giolcach
- Exceptions are -(e)ach /əx/ in:
  - /kilʲəxtə/ cuideachta (cuileachta) company
  - /kʲahəx/ ceathach showery
  - /dahəxə/ daitheacha (dathacha) rheumatism
- The -(e)adh /əx/ ending in active verbs does not take the stress, for example:
  - /jinʲəx/ dheineadh (dhineach) past habitual of déin
  - /jianhəx/ dhéanfadh (dhéanthach) conditional of déin

Allomorphs

Prepositions

/erʲ/ ar
- can be pronounced as /rʲ/ when directly preceding a word that begins with a vowel, becoming the onset of the first syllable of that word:
  - /rʲ əˈlʲaːn/ ar oileán
/(ə)ˈdʲirʲ/ idir
- can be pronounced as /(ə)ˈdʲerʲ/ in any environment
/əɡ/ ag used with verbal nouns
- pronounced as /ɡʲ/ when directly preceding a word that begins with a vowel, becoming the onset of the first syllable of that word:
  - /ɡʲ əˈmʲaxt/ ag imeacht

Notes

References

Irish/Déise Irish/Déise Phonology