User:Erisceres/O'Nolan's Introduction to Studies in Modern Irish
Lesson I: Classification Sentences Using Masculine Nouns and Pronouns with the Copula and an Indefinite Predicate
Key: ⟨copula⟩, ⟨predicate⟩, ⟨subpredicate⟩, ⟨subject⟩, ⟨subsubject⟩.
Simple Classification Clauses:
In simple classification syntax, the indefinite predicate follows immediately after the copula, and precedes the subject:
- ⟨copula⟩ + ⟨predicate⟩ + ⟨subject⟩
- Is leabhar é. – “It is a book.”
The copula is the element that links the subject to a predicate. Here, the affirmative form of the copula in the present tense is is.
The predicate is the element that describes the subject. In classification clauses, the predicate is always indefinite; it cannot be a definite noun or a personal pronoun. Here, the predicate is the masculine noun leabhar – “(a) book” – which is the description being used to classify the subject.
Note: There is no indefinite article in Irish. Without the definite article, leabhar can mean either “book” or “a book” depending on the context.
The subject is the element that is being classified. Unless a specific noun is being used to refer to the subject, it is generally referred to with a pronoun. The pronoun itself conforms to the grammatical gender and number of the predicate, being a direct reference to the predicate itself. Where the predicate consists of a singular masculine noun, the singular masculine disjunctive pronoun é is used for the subject.
To form the present negative in classification syntax, the copular form ní is used:
- Ní leabhar é. – “It is not a book.”
To form the present interrogative, an is used:
- An leabhar é? – “Is it a book?”
A response to such a question doesn't repeat the predicate or subject. Rather, the indefinite subpredicate pronoun – ea – is employed:
- —An leabhar é? – “Is it a book?”
- —Is ea. – “It is.”
The negative response would be:
- —Ní hea. – “It isn't.”
Note: The present negative copular form ní causes h-prothesis on the following word, hence hea.
Following a negative response, the correct information can be provided with the preceding conjunction ach – “but”:
- —An leabhar é sin? – “Is that a book?”
- —Ní hea, ach peann. – “It isn't, but a pen.”
Note: The subject often employs the demonstratives seo, sin and siúd – “this”, “that” and “that yonder”, respectively – by combining them with the subject pronoun.
A separate copular element is not employed when the clause is headed by a predicate interrogative pronoun; in this format, the subsubject pronoun é – following the predicate interrogative pronoun – refers directly to an rud in the subject an rud é sin, while the é in the subject refers to the object in question itself:
- —Cad é an rud é sin? – “What is it, the thing that that is?”
- —Is leabhar é. – “It is a book.”
Note: This type of question is used when no attempt is made to guess the classification of the object. It can be translated more simply as “what is that thing?”
The Present Copula
The copula is the element that links the subject to a predicate. The affirmative copula is often dropped in speech.
Forms of the Copula:
- is – affirmative copula
- níH – negative copula
- an – interogative copula
The Indefinite Predicate
The predicate is the element that describes the subject. In classification clauses, the predicate is always indefinite; it cannot be a definite noun or a personal pronoun.
Indefinite Predicate Pronoun:
In classification sentences, the predicate is typically a noun used to classify the subject with. When emphasis is placed on the predicate, the indefinite subpredicate pronoun in also employed in conjunction.
- ea – the indefinite subpredicate pronoun
Interrogative Predicate Pronouns:
Clauses using the interrogative predicate pronouns already have the copula within them, thus no separate copular element is used in such a clause.
- cad … ? – “what … ?”
- cé acu … ? – “whether … ?”, “which … ?” (where an alternative is presented)
In this type of syntax where the predicated is headed by the interrogative predicate pronoun cé acu, an alternative is presented, divided by the conjunction nó; the preceding prepositional pronoun acu refers to this presented alternative.
e.g. Cé acu leabhar nó peann é seo? “Is this a book or a pen?”
The Masculine Subject
The subject is the element that is being described. Unless a specific noun is being used to refer to the subject, it is generally referred to with a pronoun. The pronoun itself conforms to the grammatical gender and number of the predicate, being a direct reference to the predicate itself. Where the predicate consists of a singular masculine noun, the singular masculine disjunctive pronoun é is used for the subject.
Subject Pronouns and Nouns:
- é – masculine subject pronoun
- é seo – “this” (masc.)
- é sin – “that” (masc.)
With a definite noun subject, a subsubject pronoun is usually employed proleptically to the subject.
- é an rud é sin – “it, the thing that it is” (masc.)
The initial proleptic pronoun é refers to an rud (rud being a masculine noun), not to the predicate as with é sin.
General Vocabulary
Masculine Nouns:
- leabhar – “a book”
- peann – “a pen”
- peann luaidhe – “a pencil”
- bosca – “a box”
- bord – “a table”
- lasán – “a match”
- sparán – “a purse”
Conjunctions:
- nó – “or”
- ná – “nor”
- ní … ná – “neither … nor”
- ach – “but”
Syntax
In simple classification syntax, the indefinite predicate follows immediately after the copula, and precedes the subject:
- copula + predicate + subject
- Is leabhar é. “It is a book.”
Where the indefinite predicate is emphasised, it precedes the copula while the indefinite subpredicate pronoun ea (only used in copular clauses) takes its original position:
- predicate + copula + ea + subject
- Leabhar is ea é. “It is a book” (rather than anything else suggested).
When responding to the interrogative, a simple response contains just the copula followed by ea:
- copula + ea
- An peann é? Is ea. “Is it a pen? Yes.”
When responding in the negative, the correct information can follow with a preceding ach:
- ní hea, ach + predicate
- An leabhar é sin? Ní hea, ach peann. “Is that a book? No, but a pen.”
In the interrogative where the predicate is unknown, interrogative predicate pronouns are used instead of the copula:
- Cad é an rud é sin? Is leabhar é. “What is that thing? It is a book.”
- Cé acu leabhar nó peann é seo? Peann is ea é. “Which is this, a book or a pen? It is a pen.”
- Cé acu leabhar nó peann é sin? Ní leabhar ná peann é, ach lasán. “Which is that, a book or a pen? It is neither a book nor a pen, but a match.”
Salutations
- Dia is Muire dhuit. – “Hello.” (greeting to one person)
- Dia is Muire dhíbh. – “Hello.” (greeting to multiple people)
- Dia is Muire dhuit is Pádraig. – “Hello.” (response to one person)
- Dia is Muire dhíbh is Pádraig. – “Hello.” (response to multiple people)
- Slán agat. – “Goodbye.” (said to one person staying)
- Slán agaibh. – “Goodbye.” (said to multiple people staying)
- Slán leat. – “Goodbye.” (said to one person leaving)
- Slán libh. – “Goodbye.” (said to multiple people leaving)
