Latest revision as of 11:57, 27 August 2024

Morphological Alternations in Nominal Stems

Short Monophthongs in Monosyllabic Stems

The stressed vowel in the initial syllable of monosyllabic stems, if it is a short monophthong, may undergo alternations due to various prehistoric developments in Goidelic phonology and morphology. These alternations can involve raising, lowering, or “diphthongisation”^[1] (via u-infection). The specific alternations depend on the vowel’s quality and the paradigmatic form.

Key Considerations:

Historical Form of the Root Vowel:

It is necessary to use the historical form of the root vowel as a reference point when applying these rules. Although raising and lowering might seem to be inverse processes, they are distinct due to differing restrictions and should be treated separately.
A root vowel can undergo either raising or lowering, but not both.
In masc o-stems, the voc.sg serves as a stable reference point, as it neither raises nor lowers. Relying on the nom.sg as a reference can be misleading, as it might give the false impression that raising is being improperly blocked.

Exceptional Forms:

Nouns borrowed from other languages (e.g., Latin) may not follow the expected phonological rules since they did not undergo the same prehistoric developments. These nouns are integrated into Goidelic morphology through analogy, which can lead to apparent rule violations.
Some Celtic forms also exhibit raising that seems to contradict their historical root vowel. This might be due to internal analogy. Regardless, once the reference point is established, raising or lowering should be viewed as one-way processes.

Raising and Lowering Processes:

Raising:

e → i; o → u
Blocked if followed by a voiceless consonant or a consonant cluster (except nasal + plosive clusters).

Lowering:

i → e; u → o
Blocked historically by -nd in words like find.

u-Infection:

Stressed Syllables:

a, e, i diphthongise into au, eu, iu.^[2]
- Blocked historically by geminated -ss- in words like mes.
- Exceptions: some inherited Celtic words (e.g., macc) and some borrowed words (e.g., salm) do not undergo u-infection.

Unstressed Syllables:

/ə/ is replaced by /u/.

Specific Declension Classes

Masculine o-Stems

The voc.sg contains the reference root vowel, which is neither raised nor lowered.
The gen and dat sg are raised, as well as the nom, acc, and voc pl.
All other forms are lowered.
The dat.sg is u-infected.
Only stressed a is u-infected in the acc and voc pl forms.^[3]

Neuter o-Stems

The gen and dat sg are raised.
All other forms are lowered.
The dat.sg is u-infected.

Chronological Background

The following chronological developments provide context for the vowel alternations discussed:

Unstressed long vowels shortened, except when followed by /h/.
Stressed interconsonantal /e/ and /o/ raised to /i/ and /u/ respectively when the following syllable had a high monophthong (/i, iː, u, uː/).
- Condition: The following consonant must be a voiced single consonant or a nasal + plosive cluster.
Stressed /ɑ/ altered to /ɑ^u/ when the following syllable contained /u, uː/.
Stressed and unstressed /e, i/ altered to /e^u, i^u/ when the following syllable contained /u/, but not /uː/.
- /sː/ in /esːu/ blocked diphthongisation of stressed /e/ but allowed it for unstressed /e, i/.
Stressed and unstressed /i, u/ lowered to /e, o/ when the following syllable had non-high back monophthongs (/ɑ, ɑː, o, oː/).
- /ɴd/ in /iɴdɑ/ blocked this lowering of /i/.
Final /h/ shifted to the following word or disappeared.
Final short vowels disappeared (apocope).
Final long vowels shortened.
Unstressed non-absolute-final monophthongs reduced in quality to /ə/, and unstressed non-absolute-final u-infected diphthongs became /u/.

Examples

nom.sg ball /bɑʟ/ ← /bɑʟɑ/ ← /bɑʟɑh/
dat.sg baull /bɑ^uʟ/ ← /bɑ^uʟu/ ← /bɑʟu/ ← /bɑʟuː/
acc.pl baullu /bɑ^uʟu/ ← /bɑ^uʟuː/ ← /bɑ^uʟuːh/ ← /bɑʟuːh/
nom.sg fer /f′er/ ← /werɑ/ ← /werɑh/ ← /wirɑh/
voc.sg fir /f′ir′/ ← /wire/
gen.sg fir /f′ir′/ ← /wiri/ ← /wiriː/
dat.sg fiur /f′i^ur/ ← /wi^uru/ ← /wiru/ ← /wiruː/
acc.pl firu /f′iru/ ← /wiruː/ ← /wiruːh/

Long Monophthongs in Monosyllabic Stems

o-Stems

Root vowels á, ó, ú, or í do not alter throughout the paradigm.
Root vowel é diphthongises^[4] to /eu/ when followed by a palatalised consonant and is written as éoi or éui.
- If é is preceded by a coronal, it diphthongises to /iu/ when followed by a palatalised consonant and written as íui.
When the following syllable contains u, or in the case of u-infection, é diphthongises to /eu/ and is written as éo or éu.
- If é is preceded by a coronal and followed by u, it diphthongises to /iu/ and is written as íu.

Notes

↑ The alternations to short stressed vowels affected by u-infection may not actually be diphthongs, but in accordance with convention and for the sake of simplicity, they will here be treated as such.
↑ There is only one known written example in an early manuscript where the o in nom.sg roth diphthongises into ou in dat.sg routh, but the u-infection of o generally does not appear to occur.
↑ The u-infection of other vowels in acc and voc pl forms, such as in euchu, is a Middle Irish development.
↑ Unlike the u-infection of short vowels, the diphthongisation of é had certainly resulted in actual diphthongs, hence the distinction with the long vowels /eu/ and /iu/ from the short vowels /a^u/, /e^u/ and /i^u/.

[1] The alternations to short stressed vowels affected by u-infection may not actually be diphthongs, but in accordance with convention and for the sake of simplicity, they will here be treated as such.

[2] There is only one known written example in an early manuscript where the o in nom.sg roth diphthongises into ou in dat.sg routh, but the u-infection of o generally does not appear to occur.

[3] The u-infection of other vowels in acc and voc pl forms, such as in euchu, is a Middle Irish development.

[4] Unlike the u-infection of short vowels, the diphthongisation of é had certainly resulted in actual diphthongs, hence the distinction with the long vowels /eu/ and /iu/ from the short vowels /a^u/, /e^u/ and /i^u/.

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@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
-= Morphological Alterations in Nominal Stems =
+= Morphological Alternations in Nominal Stems =
 == Short Monophthongs in Monosyllabic Stems ==
-Due to various prehistoric developments in Goidelic phonology and morphology, the stressed vowel (i.e. the vowel in the initial syllable), if it is a short monophthong, can undergo alteration. Depending on the quality of the vowel and the paradigmatic form, it can either be raised or lowered. It can also diphthongise by way of ''u''-infection in a limited number of paradigmatic forms. If the stem consists of multiple syllables, then the root vowel isn't affected by ''u''-infection; rather, the unstressed vowel {{IPA|/ə/}} preceding the stem-final consonant(s) is replaced by {{IPA|/u/}}. Outlined below are the processes behind these alternations, and then for each declension class are outlined the exact set of rules for the appropriate alternations within the paradigm.
+The stressed vowel in the initial syllable of monosyllabic stems, if it is a short monophthong, may undergo alternations due to various prehistoric developments in Goidelic phonology and morphology. These alternations can involve raising, lowering, or “diphthongisation”<ref>The alternations to short stressed vowels affected by ''u''-infection may not actually be diphthongs, but in accordance with convention and for the sake of simplicity, they will here be treated as such.</ref> (via ''u''-infection). The specific alternations depend on the vowel’s quality and the paradigmatic form.
-When following these rules, an important point to consider is the historical form of the root vowel itself which serves as a point of reference. While the observable effects of raising and lowering the root vowel appear to be the reverse of each other, the fact that there are more restrictions applied to raising means that they should be treated as separated processes with differing results. The reference root vowel in a stem can either experience raising or lowering, but not both. In masculine o-stems, a useful reference point is the voc. sg. which neither gets raised nor lowered. While it's often traditional to take the nom. sg. as the reference point, doing so will only serve to mislead, causing the perception that rules regarding the blocking of raising are being violated.
+=== Key Considerations: ===
-Another important point to consider is the implementation of nouns borrowed from other languages (such as Latin) which have not undergone the previous sound changes in the chronological developments. Rather, these forms are implemented into the morphology by way of analogy, thus the resulting effects can also appear to violate certain rules, but that is only because the rules never applied to these forms during the prehistoric development of Goidelic. A number of other Celtic forms also experience raising contradictory to rules regarding their historical root vowel. These developments could be explained by internal analogous development. Whatever the case, it is best to consider raising or lowering as a one-way process once one has determined the reference point.
+==== Historical Form of the Root Vowel: ====
-* Where the root vowel contains the stress, if it is a short monophthong, it can undergo raising or lowering.
+* It is necessary to use the historical form of the root vowel as a reference point when applying these rules. Although raising and lowering might seem to be inverse processes, they are distinct due to differing restrictions and should be treated separately.
-** Where raising occurs, ''e'' raises to ''i'' and ''o'' raises to ''u''.
+* A root vowel can undergo either raising or lowering, but not both.
-*** Raising is blocked if the vowel is followed by a voiceless consonant.
+* In '''{{smallcaps|masc}} ''o''-stems''', the '''{{smallcaps|voc.sg}}''' serves as a stable reference point, as it neither raises nor lowers. Relying on the '''{{smallcaps|nom.sg}}''' as a reference can be misleading, as it might give the false impression that raising is being improperly blocked.
-*** Raising is blocked if the vowel is followed by a consonant cluster, other than a nasal + plosive cluster.
-** Where lowering occurs, ''i'' lowers to ''e'' and ''u'' lowers to ''o''.
-*** Lowering of ''i'' to ''e'' was historically blocked by ''-nd'' in ''find''.
-* The vowel preceding the stem-final consonant(s), whether it is stressed or unstressed, as long as it is a short monophthong, can undergo ''u''-infection.
-** Where ''u''-infection occurs in the stressed syllable, ''a'', ''e'', ''i'' and ''o'' diphthongise into ''au'', ''eu'', ''iu'' and ''ou'' respectively.
-*** Historically geminated ''-ss-'' blocked ''u''-infection of stressed ''e'' in ''mes''.
-*** Exceptionally, ''macc'', ''salm'' and ''folt'' do not experience ''u''-infection.
-** Where ''u''-infection occurs in an unstressed syllable, {{IPA|/ə/}} is replaced by {{IPA|/u/}}.
-=== Masculine o-Stems ===
+==== Exceptional Forms: ====
-# The voc. sg. contains the reference root vowel. It is neither raised nor lowered.
+* Nouns borrowed from other languages (e.g., Latin) may not follow the expected phonological rules since they did not undergo the same prehistoric developments. These nouns are integrated into Goidelic morphology through analogy, which can lead to apparent rule violations.
-# The gen. sg., prep. sg., nom. pl., acc. pl. and voc. pl. are all raised.
+* Some Celtic forms also exhibit raising that seems to contradict their historical root vowel. This might be due to internal analogy. Regardless, once the reference point is established, raising or lowering should be viewed as one-way processes.
+----
+=== Raising and Lowering Processes: ===
+==== Raising: ====
+* '''e''' → '''i'''; '''o''' → '''u'''
+* '''Blocked''' if followed by a voiceless consonant or a consonant cluster (except nasal + plosive clusters).
+==== Lowering: ====
+* '''i''' → '''e'''; '''u''' → '''o'''
+* '''Blocked''' historically by '''-nd''' in words like ''find''.
+----
+=== ''u''-Infection: ===
+==== Stressed Syllables: ====
+* '''a''', '''e''', '''i''' diphthongise into '''au''', '''eu''', '''iu'''.<ref>There is only one known written example in an early manuscript where the '''o''' in '''{{smallcaps|nom.sg}}''' ''roth'' diphthongises into '''ou''' in '''{{smallcaps|dat.sg}}''' ''routh'', but the ''u''-infection of '''o''' generally does not appear to occur.</ref>
+** '''Blocked''' historically by geminated '''-ss-''' in words like ''mes''.
+** Exceptions: some inherited Celtic words (e.g., ''macc'') and some borrowed words (e.g., ''salm'') do not undergo ''u''-infection.
+==== Unstressed Syllables: ====
+* '''{{IPA|/ə/}}''' is replaced by '''{{IPA|/u/}}'''.
+----
+=== Specific Declension Classes ===
+==== Masculine ''o''-Stems ====
+# The '''{{smallcaps|voc.sg}}''' contains the reference root vowel, which is neither raised nor lowered.
+# The '''{{smallcaps|gen}}''' and '''{{smallcaps|dat sg}}''' are raised, as well as the '''{{smallcaps|nom}}''', '''{{smallcaps|acc}}''', and '''{{smallcaps|voc pl}}'''.
 # All other forms are lowered.
-# The prep. sg. is ''u''-infected.
+# The '''{{smallcaps|dat.sg}}''' is ''u''-infected.
-# Only stressed ''a'' is ''u''-infected in the acc. and voc. pl.<ref>''u''-infection of other vowels, like in ''euchu'', are a Middle Irish development.</ref>
+# Only stressed '''a''' is ''u''-infected in the '''{{smallcaps|acc}}''' and '''{{smallcaps|voc pl}}''' forms.<ref>The ''u''-infection of other vowels in '''{{smallcaps|acc}}''' and '''{{smallcaps|voc pl}}''' forms, such as in ''euchu'', is a Middle Irish development.</ref>
-=== Neuter o-Stems ===
+==== Neuter ''o''-Stems ====
-# The gen. and prep. sg. are raised.
+# The '''{{smallcaps|gen}}''' and '''{{smallcaps|dat sg}}''' are raised.
 # All other forms are lowered.
-# The prep. sg. is ''u''-infected.
+# The '''{{smallcaps|dat.sg}}''' is ''u''-infected.
-=== Chronological Background ===
+== Chronological Background ==
-Below is a list of the relevant developments in chronological order that help give context behind these vowel alternations in their final form.
+The following chronological developments provide context for the vowel alternations discussed:
-# Unstressed long vowels were shortened, unless they were followed by {{IPA|/h/}}.
+# Unstressed long vowels shortened, except when followed by '''{{IPA|/h/}}'''.
-# Stressed interconsonantal {{IPA|/e, o/}} raised to {{IPA|/i, u/}} respectively when the following syllable consisted of a high monophthong: {{IPA|/i, iː, u, uː/}}.
+# Stressed interconsonantal '''{{IPA|/e/}}''' and '''{{IPA|/o/}}''' raised to '''{{IPA|/i/}}''' and '''{{IPA|/u/}}''' respectively when the following syllable had a high monophthong ('''{{IPA|/i, iː, u, uː/}}''').
-## The following consonant must only be a voiced single consonant or a nasal + plosive cluster.
+#* Condition: The following consonant must be a voiced single consonant or a nasal + plosive cluster.
-# Stressed {{IPA|/ɑ/}} was diphthongised to {{IPA|/ɑu̯/}} when the vowel in the following syllable consisted of {{IPA|/u, uː/}}.
+# Stressed '''{{IPA|/ɑ/}}''' altered to '''{{IPA|/ɑ<sup>u</sup>/}}''' when the following syllable contained '''{{IPA|/u, uː/}}'''.
-# Stressed and unstressed {{IPA|/e, i, o/}} were diphthongised to {{IPA|/eu̯, iu̯, ou̯/}} respectively when the vowel in the following syllable consisted of {{IPA|/u/}}, but not {{IPA|/uː/}}.
+# Stressed and unstressed '''{{IPA|/e, i/}}''' altered to '''{{IPA|/e<sup>u</sup>, i<sup>u</sup>/}}''' when the following syllable contained '''{{IPA|/u/}}''', but not '''{{IPA|/uː/}}'''.
-## The geminated {{IPA|/sː/}} in {{IPA|/esːu/}} blocked this diphthongisation of stressed {{IPA|/e/}} but allowed it for unstressed {{IPA|/e, i/}}.
+#* '''{{IPA|/sː/}}''' in '''{{IPA|/esːu/}}''' blocked diphthongisation of stressed '''{{IPA|/e/}}''' but allowed it for unstressed '''{{IPA|/e, i/}}'''.
-# Stressed and unstressed {{IPA|/i, u/}} lowered to {{IPA|/e, o/}} respectively when the following syllable consisted of non-high back monophthongs: {{IPA|/ɑ, ɑː, o, oː/}}.
+# Stressed and unstressed '''{{IPA|/i, u/}}''' lowered to '''{{IPA|/e, o/}}''' when the following syllable had non-high back monophthongs ('''{{IPA|/ɑ, ɑː, o, oː/}}''').
-## The {{IPA|/n̪ːd/}} in {{IPA|/in̪ːdɑ/}} blocked this lowering of {{IPA|/i/}}.
+#* '''{{IPA|/ɴd/}}''' in '''{{IPA|/iɴdɑ/}}''' blocked this lowering of '''{{IPA|/i/}}'''.
-# Final {{IPA|/h/}} shifted to the following word or disappeared altogether.
+# Final '''{{IPA|/h/}}''' shifted to the following word or disappeared.
 # Final short vowels disappeared (apocope).
 # Final long vowels shortened.
-# Unstressed non-absolute-final monophthongs underwent reduction in quality, becoming {{IPA|/ə/}}, and unstressed non-absolute-final ''u''-infected diphthongs became {{IPA|/u/}}.
+# Unstressed non-absolute-final monophthongs reduced in quality to '''{{IPA|/ə/}}''', and unstressed non-absolute-final ''u''-infected diphthongs became '''{{IPA|/u/}}'''.
-==== Examples ====
-* nom. sg. ''ball'' {{IPA|/bɑl̪ː/}} < {{IPA|/bɑl̪ːa/}} < {{IPA|/bɑl̪ːɑh/}}
+=== Examples ===
-* prep. sg. ''baull'' {{IPA|/bɑu̯l̪ː/}} < {{IPA|/bɑu̯l̪ːu/}} < {{IPA|/bɑl̪ːu/}} < {{IPA|/bɑl̪ːuː/}}
-* acc. pl. ''baullu'' {{IPA|/bɑu̯l̪ːu/}} < {{IPA|/bɑu̯l̪ːuː/}} < {{IPA|/bɑu̯l̪ːuːh/}} < {{IPA|/bɑl̪ːuːh/}}
-* nom. sg. ''fer'' {{IPA|/ɸʲer/}} < {{IPA|/werɑ/}} < {{IPA|/werɑh/}} < {{IPA|/wirɑh/}}
+* '''{{smallcaps|nom.sg}}''' ''ball'' '''{{IPA|/bɑʟ/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/bɑʟɑ/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/bɑʟɑh/}}'''
-* voc. sg. ''fir'' {{IPA|/ɸʲirʲ/}} < {{IPA|/wire/}}
+* '''{{smallcaps|dat.sg}}''' ''baull'' '''{{IPA|/bɑ<sup>u</sup>ʟ/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/bɑ<sup>u</sup>ʟu/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/bɑʟu/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/bɑʟuː/}}'''
-* gen. sg. ''fir'' {{IPA|/ɸʲirʲ/}} < {{IPA|/wiri/}} < {{IPA|/wiriː/}}
+* '''{{smallcaps|acc.pl}}''' ''baullu'' '''{{IPA|/bɑ<sup>u</sup>ʟu/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/bɑ<sup>u</sup>ʟuː/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/bɑ<sup>u</sup>ʟuːh/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/bɑʟuːh/}}'''
-* prep. sg. ''fiur'' {{IPA|/ɸʲiu̯r/}} < {{IPA|/wiu̯ru/}} < {{IPA|/wiru/}} < {{IPA|/wiruː/}}
+* '''{{smallcaps|nom.sg}}''' ''fer'' '''{{IPA|/f′er/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/werɑ/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/werɑh/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wirɑh/}}'''
-* acc. pl. ''firu'' {{IPA|/ɸʲiru/}} < {{IPA|/wiruː/}} < {{IPA|/wiruːh/}}
+* '''{{smallcaps|voc.sg}}''' ''fir'' '''{{IPA|/f′ir′/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wire/}}'''
+* '''{{smallcaps|gen.sg}}''' ''fir'' '''{{IPA|/f′ir′/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wiri/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wiriː/}}'''
+* '''{{smallcaps|dat.sg}}''' ''fiur'' '''{{IPA|/f′i<sup>u</sup>r/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wi<sup>u</sup>ru/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wiru/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wiruː/}}'''
+* '''{{smallcaps|acc.pl}}''' ''firu'' '''{{IPA|/f′iru/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wiruː/}}''' ← '''{{IPA|/wiruːh/}}'''
 == Long Monophthongs in Monosyllabic Stems ==
-=== o-Stems ===
+=== ''o''-Stems ===
-# If the root vowel is ''á'', ''ó'', ''ú'' or ''í'', it undergoes no alteration throughout the paradigm.
+# Root vowels '''á''', '''ó''', '''ú''', or '''í''' do not alter throughout the paradigm.
-# If the root vowel is ''é'', it diphthongises to {{IPA|/eːu̯/}} when followed by a palatalised consonant and written as ''éoi'' or ''éui''.
+# Root vowel '''é''' diphthongises<ref>Unlike the ''u''-infection of short vowels, the diphthongisation of '''é''' had certainly resulted in actual diphthongs, hence the distinction with the long vowels '''{{IPA|/eu/}}''' and '''{{IPA|/iu/}}''' from the short vowels '''{{IPA|/a<sup>u</sup>/}}''', '''{{IPA|/e<sup>u</sup>/}}''' and '''{{IPA|/i<sup>u</sup>/}}'''.</ref> to '''{{IPA|/eu/}}''' when followed by a palatalised consonant and is written as ''éoi'' or ''éui''.
-## If ''é'' is preceded by a coronal, it diphthongises to {{IPA|/iːu̯/}} when followed by a palatalised consonant and written as ''íui''.
+#* If ''é'' is preceded by a coronal, it diphthongises to '''{{IPA|/iu/}}''' when followed by a palatalised consonant and written as ''íui''.
-# If the following syllable consists of ''u'', or in the case of ''u''-infection, ''é'' diphthongises to {{IPA|/eːu̯/}} and written as ''éo'' or ''éu''.
+# When the following syllable contains '''u''', or in the case of ''u''-infection, '''é''' diphthongises to '''{{IPA|/eu/}}''' and is written as ''éo'' or ''éu''.
-## If ''é'' is preceded by a coronal and the following syllable consists of ''u'', or in the case of ''u''-infection, ''é'' diphthongises to {{IPA|/iːu̯/}} and written as ''íu''.
+#* If '''é''' is preceded by a coronal and followed by '''u''', it diphthongises to '''{{IPA|/iu/}}''' and is written as ''íu''.
 = Notes =

Difference between revisions of "Old Irish/Morphology"