Difference between revisions of "User:Erisceres/Chronological Developments in the Celtic Languages"

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! colspan="3" | Dorsal
! colspan="3" | Dorsal
|- class="small"
|- class="small"
! Palatal
! Palatovelar
! Velar
! Velar
! Labiovelar
! Labiovelar
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|- class="small"
|- class="small"
! Coronal
! Coronal
! Postvelar<ref>Fortson 2009, pp. 62-4</ref>
! Postvelar<ref>Fortson 2009, pp. 62-4</ref><ref group="note">{{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>H''}} covers all potential non-syllabic postvelars.</ref>
! Postvelar<ref>Fortson 2009, p. 62</ref><ref group="note">The syllabic postvelars are allophonic to their non-syllabic counterparts.</ref>
! Postvelar<ref>Fortson 2009, p. 62</ref><ref group="note">{{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>H̩''}} covers all potential syllabic postvelars.</ref><ref group="note">The syllabic postvelars are allophonic to their non-syllabic counterparts.</ref>
|-
|-
! Sibilant<ref>Fortson 2009, p. 60</ref>
! Sibilant<ref>Fortson 2009, p. 60</ref>
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|  
|  
| {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>h₁''}}, {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>h₂''}}, {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>h₃''}}
| {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>h₁''}}, {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>h₂''}}, {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>h₃''}}
| {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>ə₁''}}, {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>ə₂''}}, {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>ə₃''}}
| {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>h̩₁''}}, {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>h̩₂''}}, {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>h̩₃''}}
|}
|}


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! Lateral<ref name="F09pp61-2">Fortson 2009, pp. 61-2</ref><ref group="note" name="Allophonic Sonorants">The syllabic liquids and nasals are allophonic to their non-syllabic counterparts.</ref>
! Lateral<ref name="F09pp61-2">Fortson 2009, pp. 61-2</ref><ref group="note" name="Allophonic Sonorants">The syllabic liquids and nasals are allophonic to their non-syllabic counterparts.</ref>
|  
|  
| {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>l̥''}}
| {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>l̩''}}
|  
|  
|  
|  
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! Rhotic<ref name="F09pp61-2"/><ref group="note" name="Allophonic Sonorants"/>
! Rhotic<ref name="F09pp61-2"/><ref group="note" name="Allophonic Sonorants"/>
|  
|  
| {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>r̥''}}
| {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>r̩''}}
|  
|  
|  
|  
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|  
|  
! Nasal<ref name="F09pp61-2"/><ref group="note" name="Allophonic Sonorants"/>
! Nasal<ref name="F09pp61-2"/><ref group="note" name="Allophonic Sonorants"/>
| {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>m̥''}}
| {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>m̩''}}
| {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>n̥''}}
| {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>n̩''}}
|  
|  
|  
|  
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|  
|  
|  
|  
| {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>y''}}
| {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>j''}}
| {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>w''}}
| {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>w''}}
! Close
! Close
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To do
To do
=== Onset Clusters ===
The following onset clusters<ref>Fortson 2009, pp. 64-6</ref> are possible in PIE phonotactics:
==== Plosive Initial ====
* plosive + sonorant
** e.g. {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>pro''}} "forward"; {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>pneu-''}} "breath"; {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>tjeɡʷ-''}} "revere"; {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>dleɡʱ-''}} "engage oneself"; {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>dʱwer-''}} "door"; {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>ɡʲneh₃-''}} "know"; {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>kʷrei-''}} "buy"; {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>ɡʷjeh₃-''}} "live"
* voiceless labial plosive + voicless coronal plosive
** e.g. {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>pter-''}} "wing"
* voiceless coronal plosive + voiceless dorsal plosive
** e.g. {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>tkʲei-''}} "settle"
* voiceless labial plosive + sibilant + voiceless coronal plosive
** e.g. {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>pster-''}} "sneeze"
==== Sibilant Initial ====
* sibilant + sonorant
** e.g. {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>sreu-''}} "flow"; {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>sjuH-''}} "sew"
* sibilant + plosive
** e.g. {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>spend-''}} "pour a libation"; {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>skʲeh₂i-''}} "shadow"
* sibilant + postvelar
** e.g. {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>sh₂eh₁-i-''}} "bind"
* sibilant + plosive + sonorant
** e.g. {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>splei-''}} "split"; {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>strenɡ-''}} "squeeze, tie"
==== Postvelar Initial ====
* postvelar + sonorant
** e.g. {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>h₁leudʱ-''}} "go"; {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>h₁jeh₁-''}} "throw"; {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>h₂wes-''}} "spend the night"; {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>h₂ner-''}} "man"; {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>h₃meiɡʲʱ-''}} "urinate"; {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>h₃reɡʲ-''}} "stretch out the hands"
* postvelar + plosive
** e.g. {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>h₃bʱel-''}} "be of use"
* postvelar + sibilant
** e.g. {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>h₁sih₁-''}} "be" (optative pl. stem)
* postvelar + sibilant + plosive
** e.g. {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>h₂ster-''}} "star"
* postvelar + sibilant + sonorant
** e.g. {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>h₁sjeh₁-''}} "be" (optative sg. stem)
==== Sonorant Initial ====
* labial or labiovelar sonorant + coronal sonorant
** e.g. {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>mleuh₂-''}} "speak"; {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>mreɡʲʱu-''}} "short"; {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>mneh₂-''}} "be mindful"; {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>wleikʷ-''}} "flowing, liquid"; {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>wreh₂d-''}} "branch, root"
== Dialectal Developments in Late Proto-Indo-European ==
The palatovelar plosives merged with the velar plosives:<ref name="S17p1189">Stifter 2017, p. 1189</ref>
* {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>kʲ'', ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>k'' > ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>k''}}
* {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>ɡʲ'', ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>ɡ'' > ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>ɡ''}}
* {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>ɡʲʱ'', ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>ɡʱ'' > ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>ɡʱ''}}
'''This removed {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>kʲ''}}, {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>ɡʲ''}} and {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>ɡʲʱ''}} from the phonemic inventory.'''
== Developments in Argument for Italo-Celtic ==
To do
== Developments in Early Proto-Celtic ==
Following the palatovelar-velar plosive merger, sequences of palatovelar plosives followed by labiovelar semivowels would merge with the labiovelar plosives:<ref name="S17p1189"/>
* {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>kw'' (< ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>kʲw'') > ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>kʷ''}}
* {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>ɡw'' (< ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>ɡʲw'') > ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>ɡʷ''}}
* {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>ɡʱw'' (< ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>ɡʲʱw'') > ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>ɡʷʱ''}}
The labiovelar plosives, when followed by a palatal semivowel, became velar plosives:<ref name="S17p1189"/>
* {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>kʷ'' > ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>k'' /''_<nowiki>*</nowiki>j''}}
* {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>ɡʷ'' > ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>ɡ'' /''_<nowiki>*</nowiki>j''}}
* {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>ɡʷʱ'' > ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>ɡʱ'' /''_<nowiki>*</nowiki>j''}}
The labiovelar plosives, when followed by a coronal nasal, became velar plosives:<ref name="S17p1189"/>
* {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>kʷ'' > ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>k'' /''_<nowiki>*</nowiki>n''}}
* {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>ɡʷ'' > ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>ɡ'' /''_<nowiki>*</nowiki>n''}}
* {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>ɡʷʱ'' > ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>ɡʱ'' /''_<nowiki>*</nowiki>n''}}
The labiovelar plosives, when followed by a close back rounded vowel, became velar plosives:<ref name="S17p1189"/>
* {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>kʷ'' > ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>k'' /''_<nowiki>*</nowiki>u''}}
* {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>ɡʷ'' > ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>ɡ'' /''_<nowiki>*</nowiki>u''}}
* {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>ɡʷʱ'' > ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>ɡʱ'' /''_<nowiki>*</nowiki>u''}}
Following the above developments, the voiced labiovelar plosive merged with the voiced labial plosive:<ref name="S17p1189"/>
* {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>ɡʷ'' > ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>b''}}
'''This removed {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>ɡʷ''}} from the phonemic inventory.'''
Then the murmured labiovelar plosive became the Proto-Celtic voiced labiovelar plosive:<ref name="S17p1189"/>
* {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>ɡʷʱ'' > ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>ɡʷ''}}
'''This removed {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>ɡʷʱ''}} and returned {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>ɡʷ''}} to the phonemic inventory.'''
There were sporadic cases of devoicing plosives in word initial position:<ref name="S17p1190">Stifter 2017, p. 1190</ref>
* {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>b'', ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>bʱ'' > ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>p'' /''#_''}}
* {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>d'', ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>dʱ'' > ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>t'' /''#_''}}
* {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>ɡ'', ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>ɡʱ'' > ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>k'' /''#_''}}
* {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>ɡʷ'' > ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>kʷ'' /''#_''}}
=== Lenition: Scenario 1 ===
The remaining murmured plosives merged with their voiced counterparts:<ref name="S17pp1189-90">Stifter 2017, pp. 1189-90</ref>
* {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>bʱ'' > ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>b''}}
* {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>dʱ'' > ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>d''}}
* {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>ɡʱ'' > ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>ɡ''}}
'''This removed {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>bʱ''}}, {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>dʱ''}} and {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>ɡʱ''}} from the phonemic inventory.'''
The voiced plosives, in intervocalic environments, underwent allophonic spirantisation:<ref name="S17pp1189-90"/>
* {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>b'' > ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>β'' /''V_V''}}
* {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>d'' > ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>ð'' /''V_V''}}
* {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>ɡ'' > ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>ɣ'' /''V_V''}}
* {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>ɡʷ'' > ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>ɣʷ'' /''V_V''}}
=== Lenition: Scenario 2 ===
The murmured plosives underwent spirantisation:<ref name="S17p1190"/>
* {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>bʱ'' > ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>β''}}
* {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>dʱ'' > ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>ð''}}
* {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>ɡʱ'' > ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>ɣ''}}
'''This removed {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>bʱ''}}, {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>dʱ''}} and {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>ɡʱ''}} from, and added {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>β''}}, {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>ð''}} and {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>ɣ''}} to, the phonemic inventory.'''
These voiced fricatives would then undergo homorganic post-nasal fortition, merging with a voiced plosive:<ref name="S17p1190"/>
* {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>β'' > ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>b'' /''m_''}}
* {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>ð'' > ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>d'' /''n_''}}
The voiced plosives, in intervocalic environments, underwent allophonic spirantisation, merging with the voiced fricatives, alongside the addition of a voiced labiovelar fricative:<ref name="S17p1190"/>
* {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>b'' > ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>β'' /''V_V''}}
* {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>d'' > ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>ð'' /''V_V''}}
* {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>ɡ'' > ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>ɣ'' /''V_V''}}
* {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>ɡʷ'' > ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>ɣʷ'' /''V_V''}}
The voiced fricatives, in word initial position, merged with the voiced plosives:<ref name="S17p1190"/>
* {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>β'' > ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>b'' /''#_''}}
* {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>ð'' > ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>d'' /''#_''}}
* {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>ɣ'' > ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>ɡ'' /''#_''}}
Then, finally, the voiced fricatives, following liquids, merged with the voiced plosives:<ref name="S17p1190"/>
* {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>β'' > ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>b'' /''{l, r}_''}}
* {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>ð'' > ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>d'' /''{l, r}_''}}
* {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>ɣ'' > ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>ɡ'' /''{l, r}_''}}
'''This removed {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>β''}}, {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>ð''}} and {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>ɣ''}} from the phonemic inventory, making them allophones of {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>b''}}, {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>d''}} and {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>ɡ''}}, alongside {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>ɣʷ''}} being an allophone of {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>ɡʷ''}}.'''


= Developments from Proto-Celtic =
= Developments from Proto-Celtic =
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= Developments in Goidelic=
= Developments in Goidelic=


To do
Preceding Monumental Ogam?
 
# {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>m'' > ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>n'' /''_#''}}
# {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>oj'', ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>aj'' > ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>iː'' /''_#''}}
# {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>t<sup>s</sup>'', ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>xs'' > ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>sː''}}
# {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>o'' > ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>a''}} in final syllables and in composition vowels
# {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>e'' > ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>i'' /''ˈC_sV''}} (stressed syllable)
# Nasal fronting of {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>a''}}:
## {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>a'' > ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>æ'' /''_nC''}}
## {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>a'' > ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>æ'' /''_mC''}}
# Nasal raising of {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>æ''}}:
## {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>ænː'' > ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>enː''}}
## {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>æn'' > ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>en'' /''_#''}}
# {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>e'' > ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>æ'' /''_ɣ''}} except when the following syllable contains ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>j''
# {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>CjV'' > ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>CijV''}}
# {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>VC.wV'' > ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>VC.βV''}} where ''C'' is a single voiced consonant
# {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>ow'', ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>aw'' > ''<nowiki>*</nowiki>oː}}
# {{IPA|''<nowiki>*</nowiki>i'' > ''∅'' /''_#''}}
 


== From Primitive Irish to Early Old Irish ==
== From Primitive Irish to Early Old Irish ==
Line 178: Line 331:
* McCone, K. (1996). "Towards a relative chronology of ancient and medieval Celtic sound change". ''Maynooth studies in Celtic linguistics''. Maynooth: Department of Old Irish, Saint Patrick’s College.
* McCone, K. (1996). "Towards a relative chronology of ancient and medieval Celtic sound change". ''Maynooth studies in Celtic linguistics''. Maynooth: Department of Old Irish, Saint Patrick’s College.
* Stifter, David (2006). ''Sengoídelc: Old Irish for Beginners''. Syracuse University Press.
* Stifter, David (2006). ''Sengoídelc: Old Irish for Beginners''. Syracuse University Press.
* Stifter, David (2017). "The phonology of Celtic". ''Handbook of Comparataive and Historical Indo-European Linguistics''. Walter de Gruyter GmbH, Berlin/Boston.
* Thurneysen, R. (1946; 2003 reprint). ''A Grammar of Old Irish: Translated from the German by D.A. Binchy and Osborn Bergin, with supplement''. School of Celtic Studies, Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies.
* Thurneysen, R. (1946; 2003 reprint). ''A Grammar of Old Irish: Translated from the German by D.A. Binchy and Osborn Bergin, with supplement''. School of Celtic Studies, Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies.


Latest revision as of 22:10, 15 September 2022

This page will detail the chronological developments of the Celtic languages, with a focus on Goidelic (for now).

From Proto-Indo-European to Proto-Celtic

Proto-Indo-European

Non-Syllabic Phonemes and Their Syllabic Allophones

PIE Plosives[1]
Non-Syllabic
Labial Coronal Dorsal
Palatovelar Velar Labiovelar
Tenuis *p *t *kʲ *k *kʷ
Voiced *b *d *ɡʲ *ɡ *ɡʷ
Murmured *bʱ *dʱ *ɡʲʱ *ɡʱ *ɡʷʱ
PIE Fricatives
Non-Syllabic Syllabic
Coronal Postvelar[2][note 1] Postvelar[3][note 2][note 3]
Sibilant[4] *s
Non-Sibilant *h₁, *h₂, *h₃ *h̩₁, *h̩₂, *h̩₃
PIE Sonorants
Non-Syllabic[5] Syllabic
Labial Coronal Dorsal Labial Coronal Short Monophthong[6][note 4]
Palatal Labiovelar Front Unrounded Back Rounded
Lateral *l Lateral[7][note 5] *l̩
Rhotic *r Rhotic[7][note 5] *r̩
Nasal *m *n Nasal[7][note 5] *m̩ *n̩
Semivowel *j *w Close *i *u

Syllabic Phonemes

To do

Onset Clusters

The following onset clusters[8] are possible in PIE phonotactics:

Plosive Initial

  • plosive + sonorant
    • e.g. *pro "forward"; *pneu- "breath"; *tjeɡʷ- "revere"; *dleɡʱ- "engage oneself"; *dʱwer- "door"; *ɡʲneh₃- "know"; *kʷrei- "buy"; *ɡʷjeh₃- "live"
  • voiceless labial plosive + voicless coronal plosive
    • e.g. *pter- "wing"
  • voiceless coronal plosive + voiceless dorsal plosive
    • e.g. *tkʲei- "settle"
  • voiceless labial plosive + sibilant + voiceless coronal plosive
    • e.g. *pster- "sneeze"

Sibilant Initial

  • sibilant + sonorant
    • e.g. *sreu- "flow"; *sjuH- "sew"
  • sibilant + plosive
    • e.g. *spend- "pour a libation"; *skʲeh₂i- "shadow"
  • sibilant + postvelar
    • e.g. *sh₂eh₁-i- "bind"
  • sibilant + plosive + sonorant
    • e.g. *splei- "split"; *strenɡ- "squeeze, tie"

Postvelar Initial

  • postvelar + sonorant
    • e.g. *h₁leudʱ- "go"; *h₁jeh₁- "throw"; *h₂wes- "spend the night"; *h₂ner- "man"; *h₃meiɡʲʱ- "urinate"; *h₃reɡʲ- "stretch out the hands"
  • postvelar + plosive
    • e.g. *h₃bʱel- "be of use"
  • postvelar + sibilant
    • e.g. *h₁sih₁- "be" (optative pl. stem)
  • postvelar + sibilant + plosive
    • e.g. *h₂ster- "star"
  • postvelar + sibilant + sonorant
    • e.g. *h₁sjeh₁- "be" (optative sg. stem)

Sonorant Initial

  • labial or labiovelar sonorant + coronal sonorant
    • e.g. *mleuh₂- "speak"; *mreɡʲʱu- "short"; *mneh₂- "be mindful"; *wleikʷ- "flowing, liquid"; *wreh₂d- "branch, root"

Dialectal Developments in Late Proto-Indo-European

The palatovelar plosives merged with the velar plosives:[9]

  • *kʲ, *k > *k
  • *ɡʲ, *ɡ > *ɡ
  • *ɡʲʱ, *ɡʱ > *ɡʱ

This removed *kʲ, *ɡʲ and *ɡʲʱ from the phonemic inventory.

Developments in Argument for Italo-Celtic

To do

Developments in Early Proto-Celtic

Following the palatovelar-velar plosive merger, sequences of palatovelar plosives followed by labiovelar semivowels would merge with the labiovelar plosives:[9]

  • *kw (< *kʲw) > *kʷ
  • *ɡw (< *ɡʲw) > *ɡʷ
  • *ɡʱw (< *ɡʲʱw) > *ɡʷʱ

The labiovelar plosives, when followed by a palatal semivowel, became velar plosives:[9]

  • *kʷ > *k /_*j
  • *ɡʷ > *ɡ /_*j
  • *ɡʷʱ > *ɡʱ /_*j

The labiovelar plosives, when followed by a coronal nasal, became velar plosives:[9]

  • *kʷ > *k /_*n
  • *ɡʷ > *ɡ /_*n
  • *ɡʷʱ > *ɡʱ /_*n

The labiovelar plosives, when followed by a close back rounded vowel, became velar plosives:[9]

  • *kʷ > *k /_*u
  • *ɡʷ > *ɡ /_*u
  • *ɡʷʱ > *ɡʱ /_*u

Following the above developments, the voiced labiovelar plosive merged with the voiced labial plosive:[9]

  • *ɡʷ > *b

This removed *ɡʷ from the phonemic inventory.

Then the murmured labiovelar plosive became the Proto-Celtic voiced labiovelar plosive:[9]

  • *ɡʷʱ > *ɡʷ

This removed *ɡʷʱ and returned *ɡʷ to the phonemic inventory.

There were sporadic cases of devoicing plosives in word initial position:[10]

  • *b, *bʱ > *p /#_
  • *d, *dʱ > *t /#_
  • *ɡ, *ɡʱ > *k /#_
  • *ɡʷ > *kʷ /#_

Lenition: Scenario 1

The remaining murmured plosives merged with their voiced counterparts:[11]

  • *bʱ > *b
  • *dʱ > *d
  • *ɡʱ > *ɡ

This removed *bʱ, *dʱ and *ɡʱ from the phonemic inventory.

The voiced plosives, in intervocalic environments, underwent allophonic spirantisation:[11]

  • *b > *β /V_V
  • *d > *ð /V_V
  • *ɡ > *ɣ /V_V
  • *ɡʷ > *ɣʷ /V_V

Lenition: Scenario 2

The murmured plosives underwent spirantisation:[10]

  • *bʱ > *β
  • *dʱ > *ð
  • *ɡʱ > *ɣ

This removed *bʱ, *dʱ and *ɡʱ from, and added *β, *ð and *ɣ to, the phonemic inventory.

These voiced fricatives would then undergo homorganic post-nasal fortition, merging with a voiced plosive:[10]

  • *β > *b /m_
  • *ð > *d /n_

The voiced plosives, in intervocalic environments, underwent allophonic spirantisation, merging with the voiced fricatives, alongside the addition of a voiced labiovelar fricative:[10]

  • *b > *β /V_V
  • *d > *ð /V_V
  • *ɡ > *ɣ /V_V
  • *ɡʷ > *ɣʷ /V_V

The voiced fricatives, in word initial position, merged with the voiced plosives:[10]

  • *β > *b /#_
  • *ð > *d /#_
  • *ɣ > *ɡ /#_

Then, finally, the voiced fricatives, following liquids, merged with the voiced plosives:[10]

  • *β > *b /{l, r}_
  • *ð > *d /{l, r}_
  • *ɣ > *ɡ /{l, r}_

This removed *β, *ð and *ɣ from the phonemic inventory, making them allophones of *b, *d and *ɡ, alongside *ɣʷ being an allophone of *ɡʷ.

Developments from Proto-Celtic

To do

From Proto-Celtic to Gaulish

To do

From Proto-Celtic to Celtiberian

To do

From Proto-Celtic to Insular Celtic

To do

Developments from Insular Celtic

To do

From Insular Celtic to Common Brittonic

To do

From Insular Celtic to Primitive Irish

To do

Developments in Goidelic

Preceding Monumental Ogam?

  1. *m > *n /_#
  2. *oj, *aj > *iː /_#
  3. *ts, *xs > *sː
  4. *o > *a in final syllables and in composition vowels
  5. *e > *i /ˈC_sV (stressed syllable)
  6. Nasal fronting of *a:
    1. *a > *æ /_nC
    2. *a > *æ /_mC
  7. Nasal raising of *æ:
    1. *ænː > *enː
    2. *æn > *en /_#
  8. *e > *æ /_ɣ except when the following syllable contains *j
  9. *CjV > *CijV
  10. *VC.wV > *VC.βV where C is a single voiced consonant
  11. *ow, *aw > *oː
  12. *i > ∅ /_#


From Primitive Irish to Early Old Irish

To do

Notes

  1. ↑ *H covers all potential non-syllabic postvelars.
  2. ↑ *H̩ covers all potential syllabic postvelars.
  3. ↑ The syllabic postvelars are allophonic to their non-syllabic counterparts.
  4. ↑ These vowels are allophonic to their non-syllabic semivowel counterparts.
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 The syllabic liquids and nasals are allophonic to their non-syllabic counterparts.

Bibliography

  • Fortson IV, B. W. (2009). Indo-European Language and Culture: An Introduction, 2nd Edition. Wiley-Blackwell.
  • McCone, K. (1996). "Towards a relative chronology of ancient and medieval Celtic sound change". Maynooth studies in Celtic linguistics. Maynooth: Department of Old Irish, Saint Patrick’s College.
  • Stifter, David (2006). Sengoídelc: Old Irish for Beginners. Syracuse University Press.
  • Stifter, David (2017). "The phonology of Celtic". Handbook of Comparataive and Historical Indo-European Linguistics. Walter de Gruyter GmbH, Berlin/Boston.
  • Thurneysen, R. (1946; 2003 reprint). A Grammar of Old Irish: Translated from the German by D.A. Binchy and Osborn Bergin, with supplement. School of Celtic Studies, Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies.

References

  1. ↑ Fortson 2009, pp. 53-60.
  2. ↑ Fortson 2009, pp. 62-4
  3. ↑ Fortson 2009, p. 62
  4. ↑ Fortson 2009, p. 60
  5. ↑ Fortson 2009, pp. 60-1
  6. ↑ Fortson 2009, pp. 62, 66
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 Fortson 2009, pp. 61-2
  8. ↑ Fortson 2009, pp. 64-6
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 9.5 9.6 Stifter 2017, p. 1189
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 10.5 Stifter 2017, p. 1190
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 Stifter 2017, pp. 1189-90
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